Lately, I have been so focused on getting away from the analytical side of my personality (and the apathy that inevitably follows) that I feel I have completely swung to the other side. I've become overly emotional, and it's driving me crazy. For so long I had practiced control, and I've let my control slide. Now, I'm not saying I want to go back to the analytical me that kept involuntarily analyzing her favorite movies and finding too many faults, but I do want to find that balance. Tonight, I was going through some of my old school papers to try to "find" the me that I took pride in: the objective historian and the witty bibliophile that could spin a word web with ease. I haven't written anything academic in a while, and I need/want to. To inspire me, I'm going to start posting some of my old papers and eventually (hopefully), a new research paper. I love research, and if I can find the time, I hope to hone my skills and test them on you, my poor, dear, guinea pig of a reader.
This first paper is called "We are the People." While I have a bibliography to go with it, I have left out the original footnotes that went along with it to reserve my ownership integrity of the paper.
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We Are The People
“We are the people that use the Navajo language to make contribution to the war efforts for the freedom of our nation. And many people take it for -what we have, you know, the freedom, many people take it for granted. It's there, but what it takes is sacrifice of somebody in order to make it -- to enjoy the things that we have.” These are the words of Keith Little, a World War II Veteran, a Navajo Code Talker and a proud American. Little proudly served his country as a private in the Pacific Theatre of World War II where he sent and received messages in the intricate and difficult language of the Navajo people. After serving his country Keith Little made it back to his family safely, eventually becoming treasurer in the Code Talkers Association.
However, Little was not the only Native American to serve as a code talker in the war. Over 400 other Navajos served in the Marine Corps. In addition, Native Americans from nineteen other tribes served as army code talkers in the Western Theatre. Until recently the involvement of Native American tribes has received little attention, but they have served the United States in wartime since World War I when the military first discovered the usefulness of tribal languages for coding messages. Native American war-time contributions should be honored, not just because they brought a unique, almost unbreakable code to the wars, but because they served the United States before the government viewed them as citizens, before they were social equals, and because they were willing and happy to fight without recognition.
Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, Native Americans had many obstacles keeping them both socially and economically hindered. Until The Citizen Act of 1924, American Indians lacked governmental recognition as legitimate citizens, which also meant that they had no legal rights within the country. Even after gaining citizenship, they did not gain the freedoms under the Bill of Rights until the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968. By the 1930s the United States government had begun enforcing mandatory education for Native Americans. In some families, like Keith Little’s, the parents would hide their children whenever an enforcement agent came around. The parents needed the children at home to help with the fields and animals. This self-imposed isolation propagated tribal customs, values, and languages, but constant reliance on their native languages kept them ostracized from the rest of society. When the children did go to school, they were banned from speaking in their native tongues. Today, it appears ironic that the children were forced to abandon one of the most vital war-time resources.
The lack of legitimate recognition as citizens did not stop the Choctaw and Comanche Indians from fighting in World War I. In 1917 Choctaw Indians fought as part of the American Expeditionary Force in France. Realizing that he had several men with the ability to converse in a tribal language, one commanding officer decided to utilize them to facilitate communications and coding. After being discovered by Captain Lawrence, James Edwards and Solomon Lewis became the first code talkers. The military had just begun using radios, and even then it proved risky due to German eavesdroppers. The unbreakable code of the Choctaws, as exhibited by Edwards and Lewis, helped with the reliability of radio usage. From thence forth many of the tribal soldiers were stationed in communications. This became the first use of Native American code talking in United States military history. Their resourceful use of their native language as a code helped save military personnel and supplies and facilitate preparations for the final assaults on the German army in 1918. In fact, the Choctaw participation in code talking led to victory at Forest Ferme. Commander of the 142nd Infantry stated, “The enemy’s complete surprise is evidence that he could not decipher the message.”
Eventually, the Germans discovered that the seemingly unbreakable code used by the American forces was a tribal language. As a result after the end of World War I, German spies flooded Indian reservations on the pretense of being tourists and scholars. However, out of all of the reservations that they visited, infiltrated and studied, for some reason no one came near the Navajos. By the time the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, the Navajos were among the few who possessed what one newspaper columnist described as a “hidden language.” For this reason, the Navajo Code Talkers are the most well known Native American contributors to World War II, and therefore the most well-known Native American contributors in this period. Only about twenty-eight non-Navajo peoples could understand the complex language, mainly scientists and missionaries.
As the son of a missionary, Philip Johnston grew up on a Navajo reservation, learning Navajo customs and language. Shortly after the United States entered into World War II, Johnston began developing the idea of code talking with the Navajos, essentially an “unbreakable code within a code.” After a test run involving Winston Chee from the Tribal Council, Philip Johnston and Major James E. Jones, Major General Clayton B. Vogel, Amphibious Forces commander, requested 200 recruits; however, Commandant Thomas Holcomb approved a pilot program of only 30 recruits. Later into the war code talkers from the various tribes attended a training base in either Georgia, Louisiana or California. Many soldiers could not pass the required language tests and never became code talkers.
The pilot program was developed on a volunteer basis. “Original 29” member Navajo Indian John Benally heard of the volunteer program through his work with the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). Carl Gorman also joined the group, viewing the military as a good alternative to unemployment on the reservation. Carl Gorman and Keith Little are both examples of Navajo involvement despite the treatment suffered at the hands of the U.S. government. Gorman’s willingness to master the Navajo language and assist in its transformation into code is surprising considering that he was once chained to a pipe for a week after speaking in Navajo at his school.
Not only did the Navajos (and other Indian tribes) display a willingness to fight for the United States, they forged documents and lied about ages in order to join the military. Keith Little and a friend found a random stranger who agreed to thumbprint their papers, while Carl Gorman lied about his age in order to get into the Marines. At the time, he was too old to enlist. By the end of the war, 420 Navajo men had been enlisted and trained as code talkers in the Marine Corps. Thirteen men gave their lives in the line of duty.
Over and over again commanders have agreed that the active involvement of the code talkers in the wars proved vital to success, and that these men saved hundreds of lives. Major Howard stated, “Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would have never taken the island: The work of the Navajos on Iwo Jima was impressive, but the larger point is that wherever they did their work they provided an indispensable advantage to those who wore the Globe and Anchor.” In 2001, Congress recognized the Sioux for their involvement in both the Pacific and Europe. In 2005 the Meskwawki gained recognition for their bravery in North Africa and were “credited with saving the lives of countless members of the United States Armed Forces and contributing significantly to the victory of the United States and its allies.”
These men fought for a variety of reasons. Some, like Carl Gorman, viewed the military as an employment opportunity. At a time when jobs for Americans, let alone societal outcasts, were scarce, the military served as a viable option. Others viewed the military as an extension of their heritage. Scholars have drawn several parallels from the tribal myths passed on from generation to generation to the involvement of the Indians in the wars. Symbols of some of these myths can even be seen in the colors worn by the Navajo Code Talkers. William Newmiller explains, “The symbolism of color remains important to the surviving Navajo Code Talkers, who appear in public wearing their uniform of red hat, gold shirt, khaki slacks, abalone colored shoes, bedecked with turquoise and silver and patches commemorating battles fought in the Pacific.” One Code Talker added, “The Red cap denotes the U.S. Marine Corps; the jewelry represents the Dine; the gold shirt symbolizes corn pollen; light-colored trousers represent Mother Earth; abalone-colored shoes stand for the sacred mountains."
Today these brightly-colored uniforms bring prestige and honor to the few remaining wearers, but this honor has only recently been given to the deserving men. For almost half a century after the end of World War II, very little mention or ceremony was given to the hundreds of code talkers who risked their lives in both theatres. No mention was given to those few who had served in World War I.
Part of the reason for this lack of recognition occurred due to military secrecy. Although a few leaks had occurred during training operations, little notice was given to the activities of a few Indians. When Arizona Highways leaked information about the training project during the war, Philip Johnston wrote a letter to the editor expressing both his disappointment over the leak and his appreciation of their high-quality “All Navajo” edition, of which he bought ten copies. Johnston understood the pride of the Navajos to be so recognized, yet their training and missions could only succeed if the language and project was kept a complete secret, which is why Keith Little recalls, “One of the things that they tell you is kept...don't say anything about what we're doing, not to anybody, not even to your girlfriend. Don't speak what we are doing into her ear.” Even after the war ended and the soldiers returned home, they were told not to talk of their involvement or any part of their wartime experience. For many, this imposed silence forced them to keep all the war’s terrors inside, ultimately leading to psychological scars.
Like any soldier serving in the war, the Code Talkers saw their share of the action. They witnessed their brothers-in-arms being killed right beside them. They saw American planes being bombed and shot down. They trudged through marshy waters and muddy embankments - all because they were told to do so. And while all of the chaos of war raged on around them, they used their code to quickly send and receive messages. At Iwo Jima alone, over 800 messages were sent with almost one hundred percent accuracy, and the Navajo Code Talkers sent these messages faster than any coding machine. Still, despite their bravery in the face of battle, their homecoming proved to involve a bleak reception and empty arms. The public had little to no knowledge of the affairs of the Code Talkers and their vital role in the war. These men who fought bravely and saved countless lives remained social outcasts. From their Asian-like features to their unintelligible language, the social barriers that existed before the wars remained in place. In addition many families of the Code Talkers still lived in primitive conditions and possessed neither the communication resources nor the money to meet their loved ones when they docked.
Coming home, many of the Code Talkers did not even realize the full impact of their involvement. They coded messages when they were told to code and kept silence when told to keep silent. With all of their bravery and quick-thinking, the Code Talkers rarely, if ever, received promotions. They entered and left the war with the rank of Private or Private First Class. Still, while the soldiers may have remained quiet about their affairs during the war, many used their veteran benefits in order to further their education. Carl Gorman eventually ended up teaching at the University of California at Davis, while Keith Little ended up teaching at a School in Brigham, Utah.
The first legitimate, national recognition occurred in 1969 when the government bestowed commemorative medals upon the 4th Marine Division. In 1982 President Ronald Reagan declared August 14th National Navajo Code Talkers’ Day. These first initiative steps were later followed by a series of award commendations, resolutions and acts passed by Congress in 1995, 2001, 2002, 2005 and 2008.
Today very few Code Talkers are left to give their stories. Every year, Code Talker reunions are held by the participants in order to finally share the stories of battle and remember the fallen comrades who died during. Congressional orders have brought the much needed recognition to their heroic service, but much of it has come too late. They served and lived their lives without recognition. Even now, when they can finally talk, they want the accolades to be used in order to honor their heritage, not themselves. “I think we are making the effort that the young people don't really know about their heritage, and that's what we're working on. We are the people that use the Navajo language to make contribution to the war efforts for the freedom of our nation . . . my weapon was my language, and that language probably saved countless lives.”
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Keith M. Little, interview by Ann Ramsey, July 19, 2004, Veterans History Project, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/vhp/story/loc.natlib.afc2001001.28922/#vhp:clip.
Letter from Philip Johnson to Raymond Carlton in "Addendum from Gallup, New Mexico." War, Literature & the Arts: An International Journal of the Humanities 17:1/2 (November 2005): 22-30.
Newmiller, William. "Addendum from Gallup, New Mexico." War, Literature & the Arts: An International Journal of the Humanities 17:1/2 (November 2005): 22-30.
Marder, Murrey."NAVAJO CODE TALK KEPT FOE GUESSING.” New York Times, September 19, 1945.
Thomas, Robert, Jr."Carl Gorman, Code Talker in WWII, Dies at 90.” New York Times, February 1, 1998.
U.S. Congress. Senate. Recognizing and Commending the Lakota and Dakota Code Talkers. S. Res. 116. 104th Cong. 1st sess. (May 8, 1995) from Thomas Collection: The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c104:S.RES.116.
U.S. Congress. House. Sioux Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2001. H.R. 3250. 107th Cong. 1st sess. (November 7, 2001) from Thomas Collection: The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?c107:1:./temp/~c107MqwoCd.
U.S. Congress. Senate. Honoring the Choctaw and Comanche Code Talkers Act of 2002. S 2491. 107th Cong. 2nd sess. (May 9, 2002) from Thomas Collection: The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c107:S.2491. .
U.S. Congress. House. Meskwaki Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2005. H.R. 3466. 109th Cong. 1st sess. (July 27, 2005) from Thomas Collection: The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.R.3466.
U.S. Congress. Senate. Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008. S. 2681. 110th Cong. 2nd sess. (February 29, 2008) from Thomas Collection: The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c110:S.2681.
Winn, Marcia. "Front Views & Profiles: The Empty Saddles." Chicago Daily Tribune, March 6, 1946.
Secondary Sources
Aaseng, Nathan. Navajo Code Talkers. New York: Walker & Company, 1992.
Barsh, Russel Lawrence. “American Indians in the Great War.” Ethnohistory, 38:3 (Summer 1991), 276-303.
Durrett, Deanna. Unsung Heroes of World War II: The Story of the Navajo Code Talkers. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 1998.
Gilbert, Oscar E and Raffaele Ruggeri. Native American Code Talker in World War II. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2008.
McClain, Sally. Navajo Weapon: The Navajo Code Talkers. Tucson, Arizona: Rio Nuevo Publishers, 2001.
Meadows, William C. "'They Had a Chance to Talk to One Another ...': the Role of Incidence in Native American Code Talking." Ethnohistory 56:2 (2009): 269+. .
---. The Comanche Code Talkers of WWII. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002.
Newmiller, William. "The Navajo Code Talkers and Their Photographer." War, Literature & the Arts: An International Journal of the Humanities 17: 1/2 (November 2005): 6-21.
“Origins of the Navajo Code Talkers: Cryptologic Brilliance, Linguistic Expertise, Dedication to Duty,” www.nsa.gov (accessed 27 April, 2010).
Walker, Willard. “The Comanche Code Talkers of World War II.” International Journal of American Linguistics, 66:4 (Oct., 2000), 563-564.
---. “More on the Cryptographic Use of Native American Languages in Tactical Operations by United States Armed Forces.” International Journal of American Linguistics 49:1 (Jan., 1983), 93-97.
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